The brain goes through many physiological changes aiding cognitive development, however, the brain will adjust to its environment, and must be stimulated to assist with development and learning (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 32). Cognitive development occurs not only during school years, but also during one’s adulthood, as changes in thinking occur from a result of learning new things, personal experiences and maturation (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 30). Various theorists such as Piaget, Vgotsky, and Skinner have contributed to philosophies of cognition and learning, and the connection to these philosophies and effective teaching in 2010 and beyond are now examined.
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky share constructivist theory ideas, believing that children learn from the environment and the people around them (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, n.d.) Constructivists consider that learners construct their own learning by being actively involved and the use of scaffolding is applied so learners can relate new information to what they already know (Marsh, 2008, p. 170). Scaffolding occurs when learners are provided with assistance to learn and understand information that is new to them (Eggan & Kauchak, 2010, p. 47).
Piaget believed development occurred in four stages, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete and formal (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 37). The sensorimotor stage from birth to two years is a time when children are still learning about the world around them. Children use their senses and fine motor skills to physically interact with the environment (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 37). An example of fine motor skills is when babies grasp at objects with their fists, and transfer them to their mouths. Object permanence is developed in this stage, an important factor in future development as children learn hidden objects do exist, as when they seek hidden objects, their curiosity is aroused (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 38). During the preoperational stage (2–7 years), children learn to connect reading, writing and speech (Marsh, 2008, p. 18). This would be an ideal time for modern teachers to challenge children’s curiosity to assist with cognitive development of literacy and numeracy (Bellhouse, Johnston, Fuller & Deed, 2005). Thinking logically develops at 7 – 11 years during the concrete operational stage, as children are able to relate their thinking to personal experiences (Marsh, 2008, p. 19). Having the ability to think logically enables children to work in groups, which is an advantage for constructivist teaching. For example, if a group were given a box of blocks to complete a mathematical challenge, each child would be encouraged to have a go, secure in the knowledge that the blocks can be returned to the box after each turn, meaning each child will have a fair go. The formal operational stage (11 – adulthood) is a level where learners are now able to think analytically (Marsh, 2008, p. 19). Being able to analyze enables deeper thinking and reasoning and teachers are now in a position to challenge student’s thinking with issues of society and the world. As personal learning is experienced by all in the classroom, it is not only students who are experiencing cognitive development, but also professional teachers.
During the preoperational (2-7 years old), concrete (7-11 years old) and formal (11-adulthood) stages, objects or materials that can be visualised, such as graphs, should be used in teaching strategies (Marsh, 2008, p. 18-21). Using objects that can be touched or visually examined during instruction, assists with pedagogical content knowledge, meaning it can better assist to represent what it is being taught, therefore students grasp a better understanding of the topic (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 9).
In addition, Vgotsky determined that social interaction was an important influence on constructive cognitive development (Marsh, 2008, p. 23). Children can learn not only from the adults around them, but also from socialising with other children, the media, books and music. Socialising with others aids in the development of speech and discussion, while books, music and media can assist with development of intellectual skills (Marsh, 2010, p. 23). Vgotsky also determined that children learn best when performing at the higher end of their zone of proximal development (My Read, n.d.) For children to learn in their zone of proximal development, they need to be able to work at a level where some assistance is required in order for them to learn. When children are able to perform tasks with no assistance, they are working independently. Working independently means they have mastered skills and therefore no new learning is taking place, so in order to challenge and motivate children, teachers need to plan lessons and units that require scaffolding so that children work in their zone of proximal development to accommodate and assimilate new information (My Read, n.d.)
When children understand concepts and reach the ability to explain knowledge and experiences, a state of equilibrium has been reached (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 34). When equilibrium has been reached, effective teachers should encourage students to accommodate new information into their schema, thus causing disequilibrium (Sample, n.d.) Children are able to digest new information and learn to adapt new knowledge with old (assimilation) or using accommodation; old knowledge is changed to create a new schema (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 35).
B. F. Skinner considered that people learn and change their behaviour as a result of consequences, in other words, operant conditioning (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 167). Consequences from positive and negative reinforcers are used to shape behaviour, and as a result of shaping behaviour, operant conditioning occurs and motivation for learning can be intensified (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 169). Teachers using positive reinforcers today, such as allowing students to play games on the interactive whiteboard after completing set tasks, positively reinforcing learning, as students become aware rewards are the result of completing work. Negative reinforcers such as telling students they won’t have any homework if they complete their tasks on time can work well, though danger lies with negative reinforcers being used incorrectly. For example, students may avoid answering questions in class if they have been ridiculed for not knowing an answer previously. The outcome of shaping behaviour with negative reinforcers is that students may begin to believe they are incapable of learning or their self-esteem may be lowered, resulting in little or no participation in learning activities.
Theorists such as Piaget, Vgotsky and Skinner have made remarkable evaluations on learning. These evaluations have helped to shape milestones in learning and how students learn best. While Piaget and Vgotsky believe that learning happens in stages, it must be remembered that not all children develop at the same level and that diversity of children and society must be taken into account. Skinner’s operant conditioning learning, relates to motivation, however, not all learners in today’s society can be motivated to learn, regardless of the reward.
